Organic lab. Comparison of alkanes and alkenes Essay Example for Free

Organic lab. Comparison of alkanes and alkenes Essay 1. Volatility of methane, hexane, and paraffin Substance Methane Hexane Paraffin wax Observations Colorless gas, with a smell of sweet burnt alcohol. Clear, colorless liquid. Alcoholic smell, light but pungent. White, oily (waxy) solid. Very malleable, odorless. 1. Solubility of hexane and paraffin in water Substance Hexane + water Paraffin wax + water Observations Hexane when shaken with water does not dissolve. We can tell so because even though both liquids are clear and colorless, we can see a clear line which distinguishes one liquid from the other. The hexane floats right above the water, never mixing, and we can see the line of separation. Paraffin wax when shaken with water also does not dissolve. Even when finely ground, the solid pieces of wax float throughout the liquid and eventually deposit on the bottom of the test tube, never mixing with the water. 1. Combustibility of methane, hexane, and paraffin wax Substance Methane Hexane Paraffin wax Observations When the lighted splint is inserted in the test tube filled with methane, the flame quickly extinguishes itself, with a small spurt of black smoke. Right after, water vapour coats the walls of the test tube. Therefore, combustion occurred, since the water vapour means that H2O and CO2 are produced as bi products. The combustion almost complete, but not quite, since the black smoke suggests that a small amout of noxious CO and carbon were also produced. When the lighted splint is applied to the basin full of hexane, the whole surface of the alcohol catches fire (combusts) and a big flame forms, which lasts circa 5 minutes. As the fire blazes, some black smoke rises from it, and the walls of the evaporing basin become first light brown, and then progessively a darker shade of brown. This is the soot collecting on the basin. Therefore, a incomplete combustion occurred, in which the bi products of CO and carbon were released. Indeed, the soot is the amount of carbon produced by the combustion. The lighted splint does not cause the paraffin wax to combust. When applied, the heat of the fire of the splint causes the wax to melt, but not catch fire itself. This because the wax is in the solid fase, and so does not combust. It would need a candle wick, a piece of yarn inside the candle which catches fire and helps the candle melt. Part II – Comparison of alkanes and alkenes 1. Reaction of the double bond Substance Hexane + dilute sulfuric acid + potassium permanganate Hexene + dilute sulfuric acid + potassium permanganate Observations When the fucsia potassium permanganate is added to the clear hexane and sulfuric acid, the whole solution turns fucsia, as one would expect. Since there is no color change (the fucsia just happens to be the predominant color) no reaction occurred. When the fucsia potassium permanganate is added to the clear hexane and sulfuric acid, initially the whole solution turns fucsia. However right after there is a color change and the solution goes from fucsia, to light pink, to clear again. We can tell from the color change that an addition reaction occurred. 1. Combustibility of hexane and hexene Substance Hexane Hexene Observations When the lighted splint is applied to the basin full of hexane, the whole surface of the alcohol catches fire (combusts) and a big flame forms, which lasts circa 5 minutes. As the fire blazes, some black smoke rises from it, and the walls of the evaporing basin become first light brown, and then progessively a darker shade of brown. This is the soot collecting on the basin. Therefore, a incomplete combustion occurred, in which the bi products of CO and carbon were released. Indeed, the soot is the amount of carbon produced by the combustion. When the lighted splint is applied to the basin full of hexene, the whole surface of the alcohol catches fire (combusts) and a big flame forms, which lasts circa as long as the hexane combustion. As the fire blazes, a lot of thick black smoke rises from it, and the walls of the evaporing basin become first brown, and then progessively a darker until they become almost black. This is the soot collecting on the basin. Therefore, a incomplete combustion occurred, in which the bi products of CO and carbon were released. Indeed, the soot is the amount of carbon produced by the combustion. Since the basin of the hexene was darker than that of the hexane, we can deduce that the combustion of hexene is more incomplete. Part III – Alcohols and Carboxylic acids 1. Oxidation of ethanol Substance Ethanol + potassium dichromate + dilute sulfuric acid Observations When first placed in the water bath the solution turns from orange-yellow to first a light green. The smell is quite alcoholic and strong, pungent. After 5 minutes, the solution has become a darker shade of green, an almost turquoise color. The smell is a bit like a medicine, still a bit pungent (less though) and quite sweet like cough syrup. After other 5 minutes, the color is now an intense forest green, and the smell is very sugary sweet. 1. Making esters Substance Ethanol + ethanoic acid + concentrated sulfuric acid Observations When first placed in the water bath the solution turns from a warm yellow color to first a light blue-green. The smell is very strong, pungent and unpleasant. After 5 minutes, the solution has become a more intense and dark shade of blue-green. The smell is still acidic and tangy, but now quite sweet. It is not unpleasant anymore. After other 5 minutes, the color is now an a very dark green, almost black, and the smell is almost like lemon pie, tangy but sugary at the same time. It is a nice scent. Data Analysis Part I – Alkanes 1. Volatility of methane, hexane, and paraffin 1. Methane CH4 (g) 1. Hexane C6H14 (aq) 1. Paraffin wax C20H42 (s) 1. Solubility of hexane and paraffin in water 1. Hexane No reaction occurs: C6H14 (aq) + H2O(l) à ¯ C6H14 (aq) +H2O(l) 1. Paraffin wax No reaction occurs: C20H42 (s) + H2O(l) à ¯ C20H42 (s) +H2O(l) 1. Combustibility of methane, hexane, and paraffin wax 1. Methane CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) à ¯ CO2 (g) + 2 H2O(g) * 1. Hexane 2 C6H14 (aq) + 19 O2(g) à ¯ 14 H2O(g) + 12 CO2 (g) * 1. Paraffin wax No combustion reaction occurred paraffin only changes state: C20H42 (s) + heat à ¯ C20H42 (l) Part II – Comparison of alkanes and alkenes 1. Reaction of the double bond 1. Hexane No addition reaction occurred Concentrated H2SO4(l) C6H14 (aq) + KMnO4 (aq) C6H14 (aq) + KMnO4 (aq) 1. Hexene Concentrated H2SO4(l) C6H12 (aq) + KMnO4 (aq) C3H6O2 (aq) + KMnO2 (aq) 1. Combustibility of hexane and hexene 1. Hexane 2 C6H14 (aq) + 19 O2(g) à ¯ 14 H2O(g) + 12 CO2 (g) * 1. Hexene C6H12 (aq) + 9 O2 (g) à ¯ 6 H2O(g) + 6 CO2 (g) * Part III – Alcohols and Carboxylic acids 1. Oxidation of ethanol reflux 3 CH3CH2OH(aq) + 2 K2Cr2O7 (aq) + 8 H2SO4 (aq) + heat 3 CHà ¢COOH(aq) + 2 Crà ¢(SOà ¢)à ¢(aq) + 2 Kà ¢SOà ¢(aq) + 11 Hà ¢O(g) 1. Making esters concentrated H2SO4 CH3CH2OH(aq) + CH3COOH(aq) CH3COOCH2CH3 (aq) + H2O(g) * These reactions are written as complete combustions, but in reality they were incomplete conbustions, as we can tell from the soot (carbon) left behind after the reaction. Therefore the products of these combustions would not only be CO2 and H2O (water vapour) but also the noious CO and Carbon (black smoke and soot). These equations thus do not represent fully the reaction which took place. Conclusion Part I – Alkanes 1. Volatility of methane, hexane, and paraffin The state of methane, hexane, and paraffin wax are gas, liquid, and solid at room STP, respectively. They are all alkanes, and therefore only have Van Der Waal intermolecular forces (they are non-polar, so do not have dipole dipole, and do not have any Hydrogen bonds as well), The stronger the intermolecular forces, the more energy (heat) it requires to break the bonds, the higher the MP. However, even though methane, hexane, and paraffin all have VDW forces, they have very different MP and BP, as seen from their physical state at room temperature. This is due to the difference in surface area of the three alkanes. Van Der Waal forces are stronger in molecules that have a larger surface area: indeed, paraffin wax, which can have a molecular formula of C20H42 to C40H82 which be a much longer chain than hexane (C6H14) which in turn will be longer than methane (CH4). Therefore, paraffin wax will have a higher MP than hexane, which will have a higher MP than methane. 1. Solubility of hexane and paraffin in water Since hexane did not mix with the water (there was a cler line of separation between the two substances) we can concude that hexane is not soluble in polar solutions, (water is the universal solvent for polar solutions). Therefore, hexane is non-polar, as its symmetrical structure (C6H14) would suggest (the dipole moments cancel out). Also paraffin wax did not mix with water. This is due to the fact that also paraffin wax is a alkane, and therefore will also be non polar, because of its symmetrical structure (eg: C20H42) with dipole moments which cancel out. Also, the fact that the wax was solid, and no heat was added to the solution, contrbuted probably to the insolubility of the wax in the water (even polar substances like sugar melt better when heat is applied). 1. Combustibility of methane, hexane, and paraffin wax Methane combusted when the lighted splint was applied. The flame extinguishes itself quickly, and the products CO2 and H2O are formed (water vapour). However, the combustion is not complete, because also some black smoke (Carbon and CO) are produced, since there is not enough oxygen and the carbons in the reactants are not combusted completely. Likewise, also the hexane combusts when the lighted splint is applied (a huge flame erupts). However, the hexane has a more incomplete combustion. We can tell from the substantial amount of soot (carbon) left on the evaporating basin, much greater than the thin black smoke generated from the combustion of methane. The paraffin wax, even though it is an alkane, is in its solid state and therefore does not combust. When the lighted splint is applied, the wax changes state from solid to liquid. Therefore, no reaction occurs, and the products of combustion are not formed (CO2 and H2O, and Carbon and CO). If a wollen wick were to be inserted, then combustion would occur. Part II – Comparison of alkanes and alkenes 1. Reaction of the double bond Hexane did not react with the potassium permanganate, since the color did not change. This because the alkanes are saturated (do not have any double bonds) and therefore cannot perform addition reactions. Hexene instead reacts with the potassium permanganate (KMnO4), aided by the concentrated H2SO4 to form C3H6O2 and KMnO2. We can tell see the reaction visually, for the potassium permanganate is fucsia, and therefore tinges the whole solution of a pink, but after the reaction occurs the solution becomes clear, since the products are different. This because it is an alkene, and therefore unsaturated, so other molecules can add into it to form different products. The carbon-carbon double bond is very reactive. However the alkene could not react with the potassium permanganate without the catalyst H2SO4 to facilitate the reaction. 1. Combustibility of hexane and hexene Hexane and hexene both combust when the lighted splint is applied. They both catch fire, and burn for circa 5 minutes. They both produce CO2 and H2O (water vapour is formed, and moisture is left behind after the fire extinguishes), and also Carbon and CO (black smoke rises from the flame, and soot is left behind on the basin. Therefore, there is not enough oxygen, and the hexane and hexene do not combust completely, generating these noxious, unwanted products. The main difference is that hexene has a more incomplete combustion than hexane, since it leaves behind much more dirt and soot, coloring the basin pitch black, while the hexane only leaves a bit of soot, coloring the basin of a lighter brown. Therefore, the combustion of hexene requires more oxygen than that of hexane, since the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere remains more or less constant. Part III – Alcohols and Carboxylic acids 1. Oxidation of ethanol The oxidation of ethanol is an oxidation of a primary alcohol. The reaction can occur because all the reaction conditions are present: heat, the oxidizing agent (K2Cr2O7 ) and the catalyst (H2SO4). Therefore, the alcohol (CH3CH2OH) first will form an aldehyde through distilling (low ratio of oxidizing agent to alcohol) but then through reflux it will form a carboxyllic acid (CHà ¢COOH). We can notice the reaction occurring by observing the changes in the test tube. Initially yellow-orange, the solution then turns green. Also, we notice a change in scent, from a pungent alcoholic scent, to a sweeter, more pleasant smell. 1. Making esters A reaction occurs when the ethanol and the ethanoic acid, aided by the catalyst H2SO4 and heat, form an ester CH3COOCH2CH3 and water. Also here, the reaction only occurs because the reaction conditions were present: heat and catalyst H2SO4. We can notice the reaction occurring by observing the changes in the test tube. The color changes from a warmer color, to a colder, blue-green color. Also, we notice a change in scent, from a pungent alcoholic scent, very unpleasant, to a fruity, sweet and tangy smell like lemon pie. Indeed, esters are used as artificial flavouring, replicsting the smell of fruits.

Ethics in Criminal Justice Professions Essay -- Criminal Justice Ethic

Criminal Justice professionals make decisions everyday and they have to be able to recognize when an issue involves ethical considerations. Therefore, in order to recognize these issues and make appropriate and correct decisions, it is important that the criminal justice professional study ethics. In order to make a good ethical decision the professional will have to have the ability to apply knowledge of ethics, know the ethical terminology and the concepts needed in making a good ethical decision. Criminal Justice professionals are in positions of power and exercise power and authority over others. Therefore, it is important for them to study ethics because they must be aware of the ethical standards needed in making critical decisions involving discretion, force, and due process. It is also a fact that criminal justice professionals who exercise power and authority over others can be tempted to abuse their powers. Police decisions can affect life, liberty, and property, and as guardians of the interests of the public, police must maintain high standards of integrity. Police discretion concerning how to act in a given situation can often lead to ethical misconduct (Banks 29). It is also important for criminal justice professionals to study ethics, as ethics is important in criminal justice policy making. These professionals are in a position to make choices and analyze options in order to make decisions that affects the lives of many people. Professionals who formulate policies should act ethically and they have to realize the ethical responsibility in making policies especially when it comes to punishment. These professionals need to know how unethical and ethical policy-making decisions differ in how it affects those ... ...f nothing and therefore ethics â€Å"cannot be taught,† but since 99.9 percent of business and criminal justice professionals have a conscience, it is possible to teach and learn ethics (Perry). Works Cited Banks, Cyndi. Criminal Justice Ethics: Theory and Practice. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2009. Print. Felkenes, George. "Ethics in the Graduate Criminal Justice Curriculum." Teaching Philosophy 10. (1987): 23-26. eBook. Mills, Karen. "Can Ethics be Taught?" Oct. 2010. Arizona Department of Transportation. 02 Dec. 2010 . Perry, David L. "Can Business Ethics Be Taught?" Mar. 1994. Teaching Business Ethics. 03 Dec. 2010. . Pollock, Joycelyn M. Ethical Dilemmas and Decisions in Criminal Justice. Belmont: Wadsworth, 2010. Print.

Four Rightly Guided Caliphs Essay

Muhammad’s mission, like many other prophets, was to call people to the worship and submission of the one true God. After his death this mission was left to those whom followed his teachings. Those who truly followed in the Prophet’s foot steps were proclaimed The Rightly Guided Caliphs. They were Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, Uthman and Ali, and were the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs, all of which were amongst the earliest and closest companions of the Prophet Muhammad. Each of these Caliphs contributed greatly to the development of Islam as well as the contradictory emergence of the Sunni and Shi’ite schism. Abu Bakr was the first of the four Caliphs and ruled from 632-634 A. C. Abu Bakr was unfortunate to have the burden of leadership placed on him during the most sensitive of Muslim times. Since the death of Muhammad was quickly spreading, many Muslims and tribes decided to rebel, refusing to pay Zakat. Also, many claimed that the prophethood of Muhammad had been placed on them, this only made the tribes revolt stronger. He had to deal with the threat of two powerful empires, the Roman Empire and the Persian, of which threatened Islamic state in Medina. Abu Bakr himself led a charge against the revolting tribes who attacked Medina and forced them to retreat. Although the threat of the Roman army still remained, Muhammad had already sent out an army and when he died, Abu Bakr took over. With fierce determination he said â€Å"I shall send Usama’s army on its way as ordered by the Prophet, even if I am left alone. † Throughout the rule of Abu Bakr, troops went from one victory to another from attacking Romans. Another contribution of the Caliph was that he encouraged many of Muhammad’s friends to commit his teachings to memory. Memories all of which were written down to form the Qu’ran. All together without his leadership; the people of Islamic faith would have gone riot. He helped restore stability to the Islamic people. On top of this, he contributed to the writing of the Qu’ran and the keeping of the people safe with all his military forces. During the Caliphate of Abu Bakr, ‘Umar was his closest assistant and adviser. When Abu Bakr died on the 23rd of August 643 A. C, all the people of Medina swore allegiance to ‘Umar who became the second Caliph. Upon taking charge ‘Uman spoke to the people with conviction and said â€Å"O people, remain conscious of God, forgive me my faults and help me in my task. Assist me in enforcing what is good and forbidding what is evil. Advise me regarding the obligations that have been imposed upon me by God†¦ † ‘Umar did exactly that. He enforced the good and forbade evil. Within the first years of his leadership he completed Islam’s conquest of Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt and Persia. During ‘Umar’s Caliphate, he was majorly responsible for the vast expansion of Islam and was considered a highly effective military leader. He also commanded the construction of the Mosque, also know as the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. When ‘Umar returned to Medina from Hajj he raised his hands and prayed, â€Å"O God! I am advanced in years, my bones are weary, my powers are declining, and the people for whom I am responsible have spread far and wide. Summon me back to Thyself, my lord! † Before his death, ‘Umar went to a Mosque to lead in prayer where he was attacked and stabbed several time and fell under the assassins dagger. Before he died, the people asked him to nominate his successor. Umar appointed a committee of the Prophets followers to appoint the leader among themselves. ‘Umar died in the first week of Muharram, 24 A and Uthman was appointed as his successor. Uthman became the Third Rightly Guided Caliph in 644 A. C. From all the Caliphs he was the one more interest in religion than politics. During his Caliphate he completed the compilation of the Qur’an that still remains till today. Uthman ruled for twelve years, the first six years were marked to have been filled with peace and tranquility. The second half of his rule took a brutal turn. Rebellion rose, the Jews and the Magians were taking advantage of the whispers that were passing among the people and began conspiring against Uthman. Although with the size of his army he could have stopped all of them, he remembered the words of Muhammad, â€Å"Once the sword is unsheathed among my followers, it will not be sheathed until the Last Day. † Uthman didn’t want to be the first of the Caliphs to spill the blood of Muslims, so instead he tried to reason with them. This hardly did him any good and after a long battle the rebels broke into his home and murdered him. The last words Uthman spoke were that of the Qur’an 2:137, which speaks of God being all hearing and all knowing. He took his last breath on the Friday afternoon of June 656 A. C Ali, the cousin of the Prophet Muhammad himself was the final Caliph. At first he was very much reluctant to take the position but after he was urged by the other companions of the Prophet he accepted. Ali was responsible for the tradition of scholarship, although he too was assassinated. During his Caliphate internal tensions in the Muslim communities came to surface which lead to a period of civil war and political conflicts which ultimately led to the split in Muslims allegiances. This now known as the Sunni and Shi’ite schism. The differences between Sunni and Shi’ia Muslims are not in the written word, but rather they have political differences centred around who should be recognised as the leader of the Muslim community. The Sunni’s make up an estimate of 90% of Muslims in the world today and they believe that the leader of Muslims should be chosen among the descendants of the tribe of Muhammad, the Quraish tribe but not necessarily from the family of Muhammad. The world ‘Sunni’ itself mean tradition and in turn means that they support the Caliphate of all the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs. The Shi’ites on the other hand only make up 10% of the Muslim population and the word Shi’ite means ‘the party of Ali’ and they believe that the leader of the Muslim community must be a descendent of the Prophet Muhammad, the official term of a blood relative being ‘Imam’. This meaning out of all the Caliphs they only support the rule of Ali. Every single Caliph had an important part to play in the development of Islam and many people have them to thank for their religion and faith being as strong as it is today. Each of the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs contributed to the safety and growth of Islam. Although with the split of Muslims that result of the Sunni and Shi’ite schism, everything was eventually kept under control. If conflicts do arise between the two, it will never result in another civil war as they have learnt from the past of the devastations it can cause.

Person centred approach - 1432 Words

Person-centred approach - Carl Rogers Person-centred approach is a psychological trend which was invented by Carl Rogers (1902-1987). Carl Rogers was an American psychologist and psychotherapist. His hypothesis was that each person owns a reserved potential of self-understanding and the power to change themselves positively. The task of psychotherapy and helping relationship is to help to mobilize those reserved potentials. The person-centred relationship has three main features: 1. Empathic understanding is when the helper is trying to understand the client’s world and the way the client lives his/her life. During my work I keep my behaviour and emotional responses positive. I do not try to influence the client’s decisions and†¦show more content†¦Client colonised with MRSA at catheter site and is being treated for it. Future infection in the body and stoma site. Keeping the Stoma area clean and caring for the Colostomy. -Health and Safety risk assessment: Client chokes when she is eating or drinking due to her condition. Incorrect diet and supplements will cause choking and health complications. -Heavy Load: Carer pushing the client in a carer controlled wheelchair as client is not able to use electric wheelchair. Carer is at risk of hurting their back when pushing client up gradients. -COSHH: Storage of cleaning goods assessed. -Bed Rails risk assessment: Client can fall out of bed or hurt herself on the rail when having a spasm. -Pressure sore risk assessment: Client is not mobile and thus needs to ensure the use of pressure relieving equipment. -Nutritional risk assessment: To ensure client maintains a healthy nutritional intake. -Financial risk assessment: Client does not have the capacity or mobility to look after her finances. 3. 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